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|The Director's Use of Film Language | Basic Vocabulary | Camera Position | Camera Angle | Camera Movement | Camera View | The Director's Use of Film Techniques | Transitions | Time | Sound |
THE DIRECTOR’S USE OF FILM LANGUAGE
1. Basic Vocabulary
a. FRAME - one transparent photograph in the series printed on a length of film.
b. SHOT - a number of frames which have been taken, either actually or apparently, in one uninterrupted running of the
camera. There is no restriction on length, e.g., 1 second, 3 minutes, etc.
c. SEQUENCE - the main division of a film. It is composed of a succession of shots concerned with the development of one
subject or idea. Again, there is no restriction on length, e.g., 1 minute, 5 minutes, 20 minutes, etc.
d. STAGE - some people like to distinguish an additional division (also called an episode). This is composed of a number
of sequences linked by time, subject, setting, etc. The use of this term requires that one thinks of a sequence as being
similar in function to a paragraph and of a stage as being similar in function to a chapter.
2. Camera Position
a. LONG SHOT (LS) - a shot actually or apparently taken with the camera at considerable distance from the subject.
Some Uses - establish the setting, indicate size or expanse, create a feeling of isolation, cause the viewer to feel
detached from the subject.
b. MEDIUM SHOT (MS) - a shot actually or apparently taken with the camera closer to the subject but not so close as to exclude
some of the surroundings. In relation to the human body - from knees/waist up.
Some Uses - observation without involvement, indicate an attitude of neutrality.
c. CLOSE-UP (CU) - a shot actually or apparently taken with the camera close to the subject/ In relation to the human body - head.
Some Uses - show details, create emphasis, establish feeling of intimacy.
d. EXTREME CLOSE-UP (XCU) – a shot actually or apparently taken with the camera extremely close to the subject. Some
feature of the subject fills the frame. In relation to the human body – eye or mouth or nose, etc.
Some Uses – concentration of attention on some feature, creation of shock or surprise.
3. Camera Angle
a. NORMAL (NA) - camera parallel to the ground at eye level.
Main Use – establish “natural” viewpoint, especially as a point of comparison with other angles.
b. LOW ANGLE (LA) - the shot is taken with the camera below the level of the subject.
Some Uses - isolate the subject, emphasise height or strength or size, indicate threat or danger, create a feeling of awe, suggest
inferiority of other subjects.
c. HIGH ANGLE (HA) - the shot is taken with the camera above the level
Some Uses - create a feeling of detachment, indicate smallness or weakness, suggest superiority of other subjects.
d. TILTED ANGLE (TA) - the shot is taken with the camera out of vertical alignment with the subject.
Some Uses - indicate perceptual or emotional change or abnormality.
4. Camera Movement
a. PAN - horizontal rotation of the camera across a subject or following a moving subject.
Some Uses - indicate or emphasise breadth or length, increase scope of a shot, create suspense.
b. ZIP-PAN - horizontal rotation of the camera at a speed sufficient to blur the image.
Some Uses - indicate a transition between shots/sequences, create an impression of speed.
c. TILT / DUTCH TILT - vertical rotation of camera up/down a subject or following a rising/falling subject.
Some Uses - indicate height or depth, increase scope of a shot, create suspense.
d. CRANE - the camera is so mounted that it can move on all planes.
Some Uses - suggest a feeling of detachment, indicate termination.
e. TRACK, ZOOM - actual or apparent movement of the camera towards or away from the subject, or following a moving subject.
Some Uses - providing a record of continuous movement, gradual focus of attention on detail, or movement from detail to general view.
f. DOLLY - This is when the camera moves along with the action. The camera can move on tracks but a cheap alternative is using
a skateboard.
5. Camera View
a. FRAMING - composition of objects within the rectangular boundaries of the frame.
Some Uses - concentration of attention, indication of significance, creation of suspense or surprise by exclusion of the centre of
interest.
b. FOCUS - definition of the image.
Some Uses - sharply defined image for harshness or reality, blurred image or image edges for fantasy or flashback or perceptual and
emotional abnormality, distorted for horror or for perceptual and emotional abnormality.
c. LIGHTING - intensity and angle of light on the subject.
Some Uses - heighten suspense, create a mood, provide an external reflection of a character’s feelings. Low key is often used
for suspense or mystery, high key for gaiety or excitement, “natural” for immediacy or warmth.
d. SUBJECTIVE VIEWPOINT - the camera adopts the viewpoint of a character.
Some Uses - total viewer involvement, through camera movement the suggestion of giddiness, falling, etc.
e. OBJECTIVE VIEWPOINT - the camera adopts the viewpoint of an observer.
Some Uses - statement and narrative.
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THE DIRECTOR’S USE OF FILM TECHNIQUES
1. Transitions
a. CUTTING - the film is cut into pieces and these pieces are selected and then arranged in the order which best suits the
director’s purpose. Selection and arrangement are partly determined by the need for economical visual description and partly by
the things mentioned below.
b. PACE AND RHYTHM - the shots/sequences may be cut to various lengths so that they run for varying amounts of time. A number of brief
shots can be used to create an impression of, e.g., excitement or joy. The use of longer shots can create an impression, e.g., of gloom,
sadness, etc. By arranging the shots in terms of pace, the director achieves the larger rhythmical movements of the film.
c. RELATIONSHIPS - the arrangement of shots also determines the flow and direction of the “story”. In a well-made film, one
is usually unaware of the normal cuts because of the linking effects of dialogue, incident, etc. However, one
is, and should be, aware of the juxtapositions of shots when this has
a special purpose and contributes information
over and above.
Some uses of relational cutting:
(i) CONTRAST - each of
two shots may add to the appreciation and understanding
of the other through their vivid contrast.
(ii) SIMULTANEITY - two (or
more) connected or related stories may be developed
simultaneously by cutting from a sequence of one to a sequence
of another. Although the stories may be separate, each sequence
may directly or indirectly comment on the other. Most users of this
technique gradually merge the stories as the film concludes.
(iii) PARALLELISM - shots may be juxtaposed
to indicate things happening simultaneously
and directly connected. This may best be illustrated by the “heroine-in-danger-cut-to-hero-comingto-
the- rescue-cliché” of many westerns.
(iv) IMAGERY - shots may also be juxtaposed
to state a film simile or metaphor.
Eisenstein, an early Russian director, was fond of this technique
and, e.g. juxtaposed a shot of a vain man and a hot of a strutting
peacock. This technique may be used for symbolism by repeated insertions
of shots of some object, e.g. water, snow, fire, etc.
2. Time
a. CHRONOLOGY - a director often wishes to indicate a change in chronological
time. He may wish to signal a move backwards or
forwards in time. Signalling time changes is becoming
less and less popular but, if a director wishes to signal
a change he may make use of the:
(i) DISSOLVE - one picture
gradually merges into the next.
(ii) FADE - one shot fades into
darkness and the next emerges from darkness.
(iii) JUMP-CUT - the two shots are
linked by some visual or aural feature.
(iv) CROSS-CUT - the two shots are
linked by situation, e.g. scoring the try, spectator
reaction.
(v) PAN - especially the zip-pan.
(vi) FOCUS - one shot moves out of
focus and the next begins out of focus and
gradually moves into focus.
(vii) ZOOM - zoom into large clean-up-zoom
out to show subject in new surroundings
or with different features.
(viii) Other more obtrusive (and, therefore, less
popular) devices include the WIPE,
IRIS, LETTER BOX and FLIP-OVER.
b. PHYSICAL TIME - directors may also alter physical time by using the
fact that the moving image is a mechanically -
produced illusion.
(i) ACCELERATED MOTION - they may accelerate motion
for comic effects or, using less obvious exaggeration, for creating excitement
and
(ii) SLOW MOTION - by slowing action, a director
may create greater fluidity of movement, an atmosphere of boredom, monotony,
fantasy.
(iii) REVERSED MOTION - this effect is used mainly
for comic effects or for trick effects such as a man being hit by a car.
(iv) FROZEN MOTION - a fairly recent technique
is the repetition of identical shots. This gives the appearance of stopping
the action and can be quite effective especially when the sound track
provides a contrast of continued story development.
c. DRAMATIC TIME - this is closely related to (and achieved by) editing.
The term refers to the compression or expansion
of chronological time to suit the needs of the
story. Most films compress time but, within films, time is often expanded.
(Note the fight scene in the Matrix freezes an
action that takes seconds in real time.)
d. PSYCHOLOGICAL TIME - the director may use certain techniques to produce
in the viewer a subjective, emotional impression
of the duration of time. By using quick cutting,
loud or lively music and dynamic composition of images he can induce
exhilaration, laughter, excitement, horror, dismay. By using quiet, uneventful
scenes, soft and soothing music, static image composition and slow cutting,
he can induce contentment, sadness, nostalgia, grief. Accompanying these
emotional experiences is the experience of either the fast or slow passage
of time.
3. Sound
Little needs to be said about the aural features of film as these will
probably be more generally familiar. However, the following points should
be noted:
a. The director may select from the following types - natural, dialogue,
music, sound effects.
b. The director may be selective or non-selective in his use of sound.
c. If he chooses to be non-selective he may include on the sound track
(i) all sounds from inside the scene and from the immediate locale.
(ii) all sounds from the immediate locale but none from visible action.
d. More often he will be selective and choose to use –
(i) certain sounds appropriate to the visible action
(ii) certain sounds from outside the visible action.
(iii) Silence.
e. Quite often, a director may decide to link shots or sequences by sound.
This is called “cutting on sound”
as distinct from “cutting on action”.
f. One of the most important stylistic considerations concerning the director’s
use of sound is the way in which the sound is
related to the image.We are all aware of the aural
clichés of violins in the love scenes, if not intentional avoid
the cliché! Fortunately, good directors
are usually more original and more subtle, particularly
in their use of selective sound. The director may, e.g., use words or
sounds or music which
(i) conflict with the visual image
(ii) emphasise the point of the visual image without doing so obtrusively
(iii) gradually become obtrusive and, thus, take over from the visual image or
suggest a different interpretation of the visual image.
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